The Research Paper
A good paper has three main ingredients 1) a good idea [thesis (for an essay) hypothesis (for a research paper)] 2) proper organization of content 3) concrete examples 4) clear language. What follows is a step-by-step guide on how to organize a good paper. Organization is key because no document can tell you how to come up with a good idea. Step 1: Brainstorm Think about the assignment (the form it must take, the scope and limitations that have been placed upon it by the instructor, the length it should be, the choice of topics and positions) and decide what interests you. Don’t choose a topic that doesn’t interest you no matter how easy you think it may be to fulfill the requirements of the assignment, chances are your boredom and lack of imagination about the topic will show through. Conversely, a topic or idea that you find truly interesting will motivate interesting writing. Step 2: The Research Question There are three types of research questions. Which to choose depends on what knowledge is desired. The first type is an exploratory research question, which seeks to investigate an area that has not been previously investigated with any success. These questions are very simple and general because little is known (e.g. Is there life outside of planet Earth?) The second type is a relational research question, which seeks to uncover knowledge that will explain, predict and/or control phenomena. This type of question is the most common and tends to be specific because it is asking about the relationship between two variables (e.g. What is the relationship between amount of television viewing and criminal behavior?) The third type is a refutational question, which seeks to debunk existing theory. This type of question points out inconsistencies in existing research and theory (e.g. If the earth is flat than why do ships emerge from top to bottom on the horizon?) Step 3: Research Once you have decided what you are interested in and have made sure that it is suitable for the requirements of the assignment, it is time to do some research. If you find that absolutely nothing has been done about your topic, you are likely doing something wrong. Keep at mind that you don’t need to find work that is exactly like what you are doing (in fact, I would advise against that since what you produce will seem unoriginal); work that uses similar concepts and terminology is usually what you are looking for. Proceed to identify literature that is important to your work. Some good sources for this information (go through these in order) 1) www.scholar.google.com, 2) University’s Library homepage (see “all research databases” and select appropriate databases based on content) 3) Once you begin to read your research, be mindful of bibliographies and reference sheets, these can be helpful tools for identifying the most important literature on a topic. Step 4: Gather Materials It is very difficult to get a grip on a body of literature if you are not systematic in terms of acquiring and reading relevant literature. You must obtain at least most (preferably all) of what you have deemed to be directly related to what you are studying. This is done through 1) online HTMLs or PDFs that are “linked full text” articles in a database, 2) copying/borrowing materials at the library, 3) interlibrary loaning materials (plan ahead!!) or 4) buying materials online. It’s good to get all your stuff and be able to physically look at it all at once in the same place! Step 5: Reading and Taking Notes Carefully read each piece of literature from the most relevant to the least relevant. As you read, underline important points and pithy quotations with a pen or pencil. Once you have completed all of your reading and underlining, go back through each item in order and write down key points and quotations on 4 x 8 index cards. Use one index card for each article or chapter of a book. The rule of thumb here is not to get bogged down; there are always going to be too many quotes and too many great ideas – you can’t use them all, the secret is to be able to intuitively separate the useful from the interesting (save the useful and discard the interesting). Remember, your paper doesn’t exist to convey someone else’s great idea, it exists to convey your great idea; don’t let it become a forum for someone else that has already been published. Once you have all of your cards together, you are ready to make your outline. Step 6: Outline Unlike stream-of-consciousness writing that might be done for therapeutic or purely creative reasons, academic writing is most important for its outcome. This means the most effective writing emerges from the “Aha!” knowledge experience that we (hopefully) have when we have gathered, read and processed as much of the information about a given subject that we can and, thus, gain insight. At this point we are ready to write. But before a word can be put on paper, we have to record the structure that our thoughts will take. This is the outline. I. Introduction: Your introduction must describe your research question and explain its importance. A. Begin by contextualizing the research question you are going to present. You want to offer a brief background that leads up to the research question. Remember that the function of the introduction is not to provide a detailed history of relevant inquiry (save that for the literature review), just to provide context for your question. B. Present your research question. The presentation of the research question should be the logical outcome of the brief context that you have provided. In other words, the reader should understand why you would ask such a question given what is known about the topic. C. Argue for the importance of your research question. You cannot assume that just because you have asked a logical question that the reader should think that your question is worthwhile. Remember that when you are writing, you are competing for space in a publication. If someone else asks a better question (even if their writing and research isn’t as good as yours) they are more likely to get published. Think about this: even if your research methods are flawless, your writing is crystal clear and your conclusion is the logical outcome of your observations, it is all meaningless if the question isn’t useful. You can’t redeem yourself from a bad research question, so don’t ask one. [HINT the secret to asking a worthwhile research question is to consider who will benefit from the knowledge that pursuing the question will gain. If you ask a question that has implications for the future of life on earth, than it must be an important question because we all live on earth.] II. Literature Review: This is the place to elaborate on the literature that has motivated you to propose your research question. View your literature review as an attempt to answer your research question by sorting out what is already known about it. The literature review should follow these simple steps: A. Describe the primary theoretical perspective(s) that can be applied to your research question. Do this by summarizing the work of other researchers and theorists in a way that takes the reader through the history of inquiry with regard to your topic. You can actually divide your literature review into small sections if it helps you organize your ideas better (see letter C below for how to organize the literature review). B. This is not a book report! Use your literature review to craft an argument. Be critical and skeptical of previous research that you disagree with (i.e. that doesn’t lend itself to your forthcoming hypothesis). Point out the flaws in methodology and the inconsistencies in theory. C. Your literature review should flow and maintain a consistent train of thought throughout. This can be accomplished in a number of ways. Rubin, Rubin and Piele (1990) effectively summarize these: a) Topical order: Here you would present the main topics or issues, one by one, and you would emphasize the relationship of the issues to the main problem. b) Chronological order: This form of organization is most useful in historical research papers. c) Problem – cause – solution order: You begin by fully describing the problem…Then you identify and discuss the cause of the problem… Finally, you propose a solution – what type of research is needed to fill this gap in our knowledge? d) General to specific order: Here you would examine broad-based research first, then focus on specific studies that relate to the topic. e) Known-to-unknown order: Here you would examine current literature about the problem, then identify, at the end, what is still not known. f) Specific-to-general order: Here you would attempt to make some general sense out of specific studies so that conclusions can be drawn. D. Ask yourself which of these sequences provides the best opportunity to set up my hypothesis? A good writer could make any of the above options work to achieve mediocrity, but even an average writer could write an outstanding paper if he/she chooses the correct organizational strategy. III. Hypothesis: Your hypothesis should be the logical outcome of your research question and literature review. It should be evident to the reader that (1) you thought of a question (2) you searched through the existing literature looking for an answer, and (3) finally arrived at a belief about the relationship posed in your research question. IV. Methods A. A detailed discussion of method is beyond the scope of this brief set of instructions. The method is a set of procedures used to gather data. B. Quantitative methodology (experiments, surveys, content analyses, etc.) attempts to understand things by assigning numbers to observations so that statistical analysis can later be used to determine the accuracy of the hypothesis. C. Qualitative methodology (ethnography, textual analysis, in-depth interviews) attempts to understand the world by observing things through the lens of a paradigm. D. The key characteristic of any methodology is that it represents a premeditated plan to gather data. E. In short, the method section should tell the reader how you went about gathering data. V. Results: The way results are presented depend upon the method that has been employed. In research that has used a quantitative method, results tend to be a brief summary of statistical analyses. In qualitative work, results tend to be lengthier and are usually presented in terms of themes that have been discovered throughout the data gathering process. A. In short, results should tell the reader what you found. VI. Discussion: A discussion is the author’s interpretation of what the results mean in the larger scheme of things. In the discussion, the author should include the following: A. A clear summary of the results in plain language. B. The importance of the findings to society and to future research (the heuristic value of the research). C. The shortcomings of the research. This usually comes includes any methodological problems that were encountered and cautionary warnings about overinterpretation of the results. D. Suggestions for future research.

The Research Paper

A good paper has three main ingredients 1) a good idea [thesis (for an
essay) hypothesis (for a research paper)] 2) proper organization of
content 3) concrete examples 4) clear language. What follows is a
step-by-step guide on how to organize a good paper. Organization is key
because no document can tell you how to come up with a good idea.

Step 1: Brainstorm
Think about the assignment (the form it must take, the scope and
limitations that have been placed upon it by the instructor, the length it
should be, the choice of topics and positions) and decide what interests
you. Don’t choose a topic that doesn’t interest you no matter how easy
you think it may be to fulfill the requirements of the assignment, chances
are your boredom and lack of imagination about the topic will show
through. Conversely, a topic or idea that you find truly interesting will
motivate interesting writing.

Step 2: The Research Question
There are three types of research questions. Which to choose depends on
what knowledge is desired. The first type is an exploratory research
question, which seeks to investigate an area that has not been previously
investigated with any success. These questions are very simple and
general because little is known (e.g. Is there life outside of planet
Earth?) The second type is a relational research question, which seeks to
uncover knowledge that will explain, predict and/or control phenomena.
This type of question is the most common and tends to be specific because
it is asking about the relationship between two variables (e.g. What is
the relationship between amount of television viewing and criminal
behavior?) The third type is a refutational question, which seeks to
debunk existing theory. This type of question points out inconsistencies
in existing research and theory (e.g. If the earth is flat than why do
ships emerge from top to bottom on the horizon?)

Step 3: Research
Once you have decided what you are interested in and have made sure that
it is suitable for the requirements of the assignment, it is time to do
some research. If you find that absolutely nothing has been done about
your topic, you are likely doing something wrong. Keep at mind that you
don’t need to find work that is exactly like what you are doing (in fact,
I would advise against that since what you produce will seem unoriginal);
work that uses similar concepts and terminology is usually what you are
looking for.

Proceed to identify literature that is important to your work. Some good
sources for this information (go through these in order)
1) www.scholar.google.com, 2) University’s Library homepage (see “all
research databases” and select appropriate databases based on content)
3) Once you begin to read your research, be mindful of bibliographies and
reference sheets, these can be helpful tools for identifying the most
important literature on a topic.

Step 4: Gather Materials
It is very difficult to get a grip on a body of literature if you are not
systematic in terms of acquiring and reading relevant literature. You
must obtain at least most (preferably all) of what you have deemed to be
directly related to what you are studying. This is done through 1) online
HTMLs or PDFs that are “linked full text” articles in a database,
2) copying/borrowing materials at the library, 3) interlibrary loaning
materials (plan ahead!!) or 4) buying materials online. It’s good to get
all your stuff and be able to physically look at it all at once in the
same place!

Step 5: Reading and Taking Notes
Carefully read each piece of literature from the most relevant to the
least relevant. As you read, underline important points and pithy
quotations with a pen or pencil. Once you have completed all of your
reading and underlining, go back through each item in order and write down
key points and quotations on 4 x 8 index cards. Use one index card for
each article or chapter of a book. The rule of thumb here is not to get
bogged down; there are always going to be too many quotes and too many
great ideas – you can’t use them all, the secret is to be able to
intuitively separate the useful from the interesting (save the useful and
discard the interesting). Remember, your paper doesn’t exist to convey
someone else’s great idea, it exists to convey your great idea; don’t let
it become a forum for someone else that has already been published. Once
you have all of your cards together, you are ready to make your outline.

Step 6: Outline
Unlike stream-of-consciousness writing that might be done for therapeutic
or purely creative reasons, academic writing is most important for its
outcome. This means the most effective writing emerges from the “Aha!”
knowledge experience that we (hopefully) have when we have gathered, read
and processed as much of the information about a given subject that we can
and, thus, gain insight. At this point we are ready to write. But before
a word can be put on paper, we have to record the structure that our
thoughts will take. This is the outline.

I. Introduction: Your introduction must describe your research
question and explain its importance.
A. Begin by contextualizing the research question you are going to
present. You want to offer a brief background that leads up to the
research question. Remember that the function of the introduction is not
to provide a detailed history of relevant inquiry (save that for the
literature review), just to provide context for your question.

B. Present your research question. The presentation of the research
question should be the logical outcome of the brief context that you have
provided. In other words, the reader should understand why you would ask
such a question given what is known about the topic.
C. Argue for the importance of your research question. You cannot
assume that just because you have asked a logical question that the reader
should think that your question is worthwhile. Remember that when you are
writing, you are competing for space in a publication. If someone else
asks a better question (even if their writing and research isn’t as good
as yours) they are more likely to get published. Think about this: even
if your research methods are flawless, your writing is crystal clear and
your conclusion is the logical outcome of your observations, it is all
meaningless if the question isn’t useful. You can’t redeem yourself from a
bad research question, so don’t ask one. [*HINT* the secret to asking a
worthwhile research question is to consider who will benefit from the
knowledge that pursuing the question will gain. If you ask a question
that has implications for the future of life on earth, than it must be an
important question because we all live on earth.]

II. Literature Review: This is the place to elaborate on the
literature that has motivated you to propose your research question. View
your literature review as an attempt to answer your research question by
sorting out what is already known about it. The literature review should
follow these simple steps:
A. Describe the primary theoretical perspective(s) that can be
applied to your research question. Do this by summarizing the work of
other researchers and theorists in a way that takes the reader through the
history of inquiry with regard to your topic. You can actually divide
your literature review into small sections if it helps you organize your
ideas better (see letter C below for how to organize the literature review).
B. This is not a book report! Use your literature review to craft an
argument. Be critical and skeptical of previous research that you
disagree with (i.e. that doesn’t lend itself to your forthcoming
hypothesis). Point out the flaws in methodology and the inconsistencies
in theory.
C. Your literature review should flow and maintain a consistent train
of thought throughout. This can be accomplished in a number of ways.
Rubin, Rubin and Piele (1990) effectively summarize these:
a) Topical order: Here you would present the main topics or issues,
one by one, and you would emphasize the relationship of the issues to the
main problem.
b) Chronological order: This form of organization is most useful in
historical research papers.
c) Problem – cause – solution order: You begin by fully describing
the problem…Then you identify and discuss the cause of the problem…
Finally, you propose a solution – what type of research is needed to fill
this gap in our knowledge?
d) General to specific order: Here you would examine broad-based
research first, then focus on specific studies that relate to the topic.

e) Known-to-unknown order: Here you would examine current literature
about the problem, then identify, at the end, what is still not known.

f) Specific-to-general order: Here you would attempt to make some
general sense out of specific studies so that conclusions can be drawn.

D. Ask yourself which of these sequences provides the best
opportunity to set up my hypothesis? A good writer could make any of the
above options work to achieve mediocrity, but even an average writer could
write an outstanding paper if he/she chooses the correct organizational
strategy.
III. Hypothesis: Your hypothesis should be the logical outcome of your
research question and literature review. It should be evident to the
reader that (1) you thought of a question (2) you searched through the
existing literature looking for an answer, and (3) finally arrived at a
belief about the relationship posed in your research question.
IV. Methods
A. A detailed discussion of method is beyond the scope of this brief
set of instructions. The method is a set of procedures used to gather
data.
B. Quantitative methodology (experiments, surveys, content analyses,
etc.) attempts to understand things by assigning numbers to observations
so that statistical analysis can later be used to determine the accuracy
of the hypothesis.
C. Qualitative methodology (ethnography, textual analysis, in-depth
interviews) attempts to understand the world by observing things through
the lens of a paradigm.
D. The key characteristic of any methodology is that it represents a
premeditated plan to gather data.
E. In short, the method section should tell the reader how you went
about gathering data.
V. Results: The way results are presented depend upon the method that
has been employed. In research that has used a quantitative method,
results tend to be a brief summary of statistical analyses. In
qualitative work, results tend to be lengthier and are usually presented
in terms of themes that have been discovered throughout the data gathering
process.
A. In short, results should tell the reader what you found.
VI. Discussion: A discussion is the author’s interpretation of what
the results mean in the larger scheme of things. In the discussion, the
author should include the following:
A. A clear summary of the results in plain language.
B. The importance of the findings to society and to future research
(the heuristic value of the research).
C. The shortcomings of the research. This usually comes includes any
methodological problems that were encountered and cautionary warnings
about overinterpretation of the results.
D. Suggestions for future research.